Italy

Demographics

In the past ten to 20 years, Italy has been transformed from an emigrant country into an immigrant country. Foreign labour has proven indispensable for accelerating and sustaining the rate of economic development – resulting in the appearance of new minority groups, including a substantial number of Muslims. Muslims constitute the second largest religious community in Italy.

They come from different ethnic groups and different parts of the world, speak different languages, and have different social backgrounds and legal status. In fact, religion often is the only link among these diverse communities. This diversity has lead to an extensive academic debate as to whether Muslims in Italy should be considered a “community” at all.

The Muslim population, concentrated mainly in the regions of Lazio, Lombardia, Campania, Sicilia, Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, represents just above one percent of the total population and about 36 percent of the immigrant community.

Presently, the total Muslim population numbers approximately 700,000. About 40,000-50,000 (among them about 10,000 Christians who converted to Islam) are Italian citizens whose rights and obligations are protected and regulated by the same legal provisions that apply to other Italian citizens. However, the majority of Muslims are immigrants who arrived within the past ten to 20 years, and have not obtained Italian citizenship.

Of these, approximately 610,000-615,000 persons have obtained “regular status,” and have the legal right to reside and work in Italy. In addition, 80,000-85,000 persons are “illegal migrants” without residency or work permits. According to current estimates, persons coming from traditionally Muslim countries are the fastest growing immigrant group.

Labor Market

Italian research has shown that those of Moroccan heritage face substantial discrimination in employment. They are also clustered in low-skilled positions and reportedly experience difficulties in obtaining skilled positions despite sufficient professional and linguistic qualifications.

Housing

In Italy, a number of small-scale surveys were conducted in the late 1990’s. These tend to show that Muslims tend to live in overcrowded conditions in substandard housing (ECRI Report on Italy, 2001). Studies have shown that people of immigrant origin are charged higher average rents than native Italians.

Education

The OECD collects data on education from various statistical agencies within the country, the majority of which comes from census data from the year 2000. The OECD classifies educational achievement using the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED): ISCED 0/1/2: Less than upper secondary; ISCED 3/4: Upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary; ISCED 5A: "Academic" tertiary; ISCED 5B: "Vocational" tertiary; ISCED 6: Advanced research programs. 0-2 are considered low, 3-4 as medium, and 5 and above are considered high. This data is not reported by religion, but does have country of origin as reported by the respondent. It is thus possible to construct an approximate picture of the educational achievement of the population in the country with ancestry from predominately Muslim countries. One significant problem is that some countries, such as India and Nigeria, have large Muslim populations but the immigrant population cannot be readily classified as predominately Muslim or non-Muslim. As such, the educational data is split by predominately Muslim origin, predominately non-Muslim origin, and a separate category for those whom classification would not seem justified. Proportions are for all reported data, individuals with no reported ancestry or education are excluded.

	High	Medium	Low
Muslim	9%	26%	65%
Non-Muslim	8%	28%	63%
Indeterminate	12%	30%	58%

State and Church

Italy has formal freedom of religion but provides special status to some, especially the Catholic Church. The concordat between the Catholic Church and the Italian government is long-standing, but many of its legal provisions have been extended to other religions. Despite the large Muslim population, the lack of a clear leadership structure has prevented the state from establishing such an agreement for Islam (US State Dept., 2004). As one might expect, the Catholic Church maintains a clearly preferential relationship with the Italian state (Ferrari, 2005).

The problem of proper representation is cited as the chief cause for the lack of recognition of Muslims as a religious community in a State agreement. The dilemma for the State is that once it recognizes one of the groups as representing the entire Islamic community, with powers to appoint Imams, administer money contributed to religious denominations, etc., other groups may refuse to recognize that group’s representativeness. The State’s position is that it is “too early to conclude such an agreement with Muslims,” until the Muslim community is rooted and proper representation emerges. Experts note that there are “rudiments” of dialogue between the State and Muslims, but that further efforts are necessary.

Muslims in Legislatures

It does not appear that any Muslims have been elected to the national or European legislatures.

Muslim Organizations

There are a number of Muslim organizations that are becoming increasingly active in articulating the concerns and demands of their communities. Muslims who identify themselves primarily as a religious community have articulated claims regarding the right to free practice of their religion. On the local level, they have requested permission to open mosques; on the national level, they have sought a State agreement (intesa) with the Muslim community, which many other smaller religious minorities have already achieved.

The largest Muslim organisation is UCOII (Union of Islamic Communities in Italy), a federation of about 50 mosques across the country. The UCOII has a network all over Europe and supports an “international Muslim brotherhood.” It has sought recognition from the European Parliament as a confessional minority in Europe that supports “not individual but collective integration.”

The Centro Culturale Islamico (Islamic Cultural Centre) is based in Rome. The Centre has played a leading role in the construction of the most important mosque in Italy. Its Board is largely composed of the ambassadors of Islamic States. Besides serving as a spiritual and social focal point, organising celebrations of religious holidays and observance of other religious rites, the Centre plays an important educational role. It provides Arabic language classes and religious instruction and has an extensive library on Islamic history, culture and contemporary affairs.

The Association of Italian Muslims (AMI) and Coreis are smaller organisations, composed predominantly of Italian citizens who have converted to Islam; both have pledged to guarantee non-fundamentalism if a State agreement were to be concluded with them. Both organisations are self-financed, and actively promote inter-culturalism and tolerance.

These organizations have competed with each other and with other organizations for the right to represent the Muslim community.

There are also a number of independent groups centered around local mosques which have neither claimed representativeness, nor allied with other larger organizations.

Islamic Education

There are neither legal nor political obstacles to full and equal access to education for all children, regardless of their citizenship, national or religious status. The Constitution sets forth a general policy of full integration through the educational system, stating that “schools shall be open to everyone.” Foreign children, regardless of their legal status, have the same right to education (and the same compulsory education requirement) as Italian children. Foreign children as well as Italian nationals may apply for enrolment at any time during the school year.

However, emerging patterns of lower than average attendance and achievement, and higher drop-out rates among immigrant children, indicate that full and equal access to public education for all children in practice has yet to be achieved.

As immigration is a relatively new phenomenon, there are still relatively few immigrant(including Muslim) children in the educational system. Furthermore, there are no comprehensive data concerning school attendance specifically for Muslim pupils.

The number of immigrant children attending school has dramatically increased overthe past ten years, from 25,756 enrolled at the beginning of the 1990s to 162,774 in 2001 (with an annual growth of more than 28,000 students). Among these, 20 percent attend kindergarten, 44 percent elementary school, 24 percent middle school, and 12 percent high school. African and Asian children represent 45 percent of immigrant schoolchildren.

In some regions the levels of integration of immigrants, including Muslim children, in schools have been very high. For example, in the province of Turin almost 95 percent of immigrant children who are enrolled in elementary, middle and high schools (irrespective of religious affiliation) regularly attend, although attendance decreases slightly at the higher level of school (from 96.6 percent attendance in elementary schools to about 93 percent in middle schools and in high schools).

However, official reports show that only a slight majority of foreign minors in the country as a whole attend school.

There is little research on the problems experienced by individual Muslim students in schools, although there is some evidence that they experience certain discomfort vis-à-vis State educational establishments, with a negative impact on attendance and academic progress. For example, according to studies conducted in Modena, Turin, Brescia, Bologna, Genoa, Bari, Padova, Arezzo, and Ravenna, about one third of immigrant pupils expressed a wish to have separate education for members of the same group. Among pupils of North African origin, 71.4 percent of girls prefer an open school, but 46.5 percent of boys are said to feel uncomfortable in the “free climate” of Italian schools.

School curricula do not provide for specific courses on the culture of the countries of origin or elective classes in the native languages of immigrant children.

Some Muslim representatives asserted during interviews that State schools do not manifest a sufficiently inter-cultural approach: while Catholic religious education is a mandatory part of the curriculum, little information is provided about other religions; moreover, images of Islam in text books are reportedly distorted and sometimes inaccurate. Inter alia, school cafeterias often do not take into consideration the dietary requirements of Muslim pupils. Further, there have been reports that occasionally parents and even teachers display intolerant attitudes towards Muslim pupils; such attitudes became more noticeable following the events of September 11.

Italian institutions are highly concerned with the soaring rate of foreigners not accomplishing schooling requirements (evasione dell’obbligo scolastico), and have taken a number of steps to facilitate equal access to education in practice.

State, regional and local governments are required to facilitate equal access to education by setting up language classes and other activities for foreign students to learn Italian, so that they may fully participate in classroom work.

The Government has sponsored the employment of “cultural and linguistic mediators” to assist and support teachers working with large numbers of foreign children. The “linguistic mediator” is usually an adult of the same nationality as foreign students, who has the task of helping them adjust to school and easing relations between the school and the family. Cultural mediators assist teachers of publicly funded literacy and integration classes for foreign adults.

Usually, mediators are called upon by schools to assist in the process of enrolment, when there are linguistic barriers to Muslim representatives reported that after September 11 some parents and even teachers verbally harassed Muslim students, calling them “terrorists” and “friends of Bin Laden.”

These classes are offered at specially established Centri Territoriali Permanenti (Permanent Territorial Centres) for the education and training of adult immigrants. The Centres are established and receive State funding on the basis of O.M. 455/97 communication.

A special register of qualified assistants is maintained by the Provincial Education Offices, which also organise regular classes and training sessions for the assistants.

Government efforts are complemented by the work of private institutions (mainly
Catholic charitable organisations) and NGOs, which offer a wide range of literacy and language classes to facilitate the access of foreign minors to the educational system.

Muslim immigrants speak the different languages of their different countries of origin – usually a “neo-Arabic” language – which are quite distinct from classical and literary Arabic. There is no publicly funded education in Arabic for Muslim students coming from Arabic-speaking countries (or in other language for other immigrant groups). No data has been collected concerning the demand for public education (including provision of foreign language classes) in Arabic or other languages spoken by Muslims, and no efforts have been made to develop initiatives in this area.

In accordance with the Constitution, the educational system does not provide separate public funding for religious education. However, schools and “educational institutes” may be established at private expense, provided they guarantee equal access and equal educational treatment for all and observe standard curriculum requirements. Moreover, private schools, including those with a religious orientation, may receive direct or indirect State funding, mainly through regional governments. Numerous private Catholic schools operate on this basis. However, no legally-accredited Islamic schools have been established. Muslim representatives have asserted that, as a group that is not recognised as a minority, they are at a disadvantage in obtaining State funding to establish and support their own educational establishments. The curricula of public schools include Catholic religious education, although any pupil has the right to attend or not to attend such classes.

In practice, however, no such courses have been organised for Muslims in public schools, despite requests from Muslim representatives and parents. Many Catholic as well as non-Catholic students choose to be exempted. Still, some Muslim representatives have expressed dissatisfaction with this solution, as children who choose exemption are left to “loiter” during those class periods.

The issue of Islamic education in public schools is likely to increase in importance as the number of Muslim students continues to grow. It is almost inevitable that in a short time public school authorities will be confronted with a strong demand for classes in Islam and Arabic as a foreign language, according to the pattern already established for other religious groups and by older Muslim communities in other EU countries. However, there have been no State initiatives in this area as of yet.

The State educational system does not aim to develop differentiated minority education for non-historical minority groups. Instead, for groups not currently recognized as minorities, the Government has focused attention on promoting the integration of minorities as well as greater awareness of and appreciation for minority culture and identity in mainstream schools.

Security, Immigration and Anti Terrorism Issues

Italy has ratified the principal international legal instruments for combating discrimination and protecting minority rights.

The rights of Muslims who are Italian citizens are regulated by the legislation that applies to all citizens. The legal status of immigrants who do not have Italian citizenship is regulated by the Law on Immigration and the Legal Status of Foreigners Costituzione della Repubblica Italiana, approved by the Constitutional Assembly December 1947 and published in the Official Gazette of 27 December 1947, N. 298, Art. 80. (Hereafter, “Constitution.”) In some cases, more favorable treatment of immigrants has been justified on the basis of international treaty.

The Constitution stipulates equality under the law and equal social status without distinction as to sex, race, language, religion, political opinions, and personal or social conditions for all citizens. Moreover, the Constitutional Court has confirmed that “equality under the law” applies to non-citizens (including illegal immigrants) as well.

Italian courts have proven willing to apply anti-discrimination provisions in practice. Constitutional anti-discrimination provisions are complemented by Law 286/98, which contains a detailed definition of direct and indirect discrimination, and provides for a simplified procedure for filing complaints. In cases involving allegations of discrimination against employers by employees, the complainant may use statistical data attesting a difference in the hiring or firing of workers to prove discrimination. Courts have imposed sanctions on public authorities and private individuals found guilty of discrimination. The anti-discrimination provisions of Law 286/98 (which otherwise applies primarily to immigrants) are explicitly extended to Italian citizens as well.

Some of the new provisions have been criticized by opposition parties and a number of non-governmental organizations as restrictive and discriminatory. Particular criticism was provoked by a provision requiring all immigrants who apply for a residence permit to be finger-printed. In response, the Government proposed to extend this requirement to include citizens as well. Other controversial provisions include: reduction of the period of validity for residency permits from three to two years; the exclusion of those over 18 from the family reunification program; and withdrawal of the residency permit in case of loss of ones job.

However, the effectiveness of the legal framework is apparently limited by low public awareness of its existence, particularly among immigrant communities.

Italian immigration is mostly governed by the 2002 Bossi-Fini law. This law tightly controls entry and stay of immigrants. Italy also accepts a very small number of refugees due to the vague laws, incompetent administration, and the low likelihood of acceptance (IHF, 2005). An additional law in 2003 increased penalties for illegal immigration, created more temporary detention centers and limited family reunification.

In Italy, laws ban the dissemination of ideas of racial superiority or ideas that are based on hatred on the basis of race or ethnic origin and instigation to discriminatory or violent acts on the basis of race, ethnicity, nationality and religion (Decree No.205/1993, Art.1).

After the London train bombings of 2005, the Italian legislature enacted a number of new laws intended to make it easier to confront the threat of terrorism. These laws were criticized by various Muslim organizations for their focus on after-the-fact remedies rather than action oriented towards preventing the problems from arising.

Bias and Discrimination

As in other European countries, an upsurge in anti-Muslim violence was reported after September 11th. This was mainly centered in Northern Italy.

Fourteen percent of Italy's prison population is Muslim, 98 percent of whom are foreign nationals. Muslims only account for one percent of the total population. Italian prisons are the most overcrowded in Europe, with an occupancy level of 131,5% (source: www.istat.it, 2005 World Prison Population List).

Islamic Practice

There are more than 300 Islamic places of worship in Italy, out of which perhaps a third are proper mosques. The Grand Mosque of Rome, opened in 1995, is a notable example. There have been reports of opposition to funding by local authorities for mosque building. For instance, there has been rising opposition from the church and local residents to the construction of a mosque in Naples, for which 2 million Euros was granted by the regional authorities.

There are special sections for Muslim graves in municipal cemeteries, and some cities have separate Muslim cemeteries, where burial according to Islamic traditions is possible.

Most political parties in parliament have not supported bans on any type of Muslim clothing, and the Vatican has agreed with this stance. However, in 2004, the Northern League, a rightist regional political party, led a campaign against the burqa. In the town of Drezzo, an Italian convert had taken up wearing the burqa, and fascist-era laws against wearing masks in public were used to fine her.

There have been no problems with halal slaughter, which is reportedly practiced in municipal slaughter houses.

Public Perception of Islam

A 2003 study showed substantial anti-Muslim attitudes in Italy, with half of Italians believing Muslims are fanatic fundamentalists who support terrorism. 56 percent of Italians believe that Muslims have “cruel and barbaric laws”, 47 percent consider them “religious fundamentalist and fanatics”, and 33 percent are convinced that they are invading.

Media Coverage and Intellectual Discourse

One of the most notable anti-Muslim intellectuals is Oriana Fallaci, a respected writer and famous political interviewer. After September 11th, she made a series of criticisms of Islam, culminating in a book La Rabbia e l'Orgoglio (The Rage and the Pride). In this book she claimed that the West was superior to Islam, used phrases such as “multiplied like rats” to describe Muslims immigrants, and called Muslims “vile creatures, who urinate in baptisteries.” Although she was tried for incitement to hatred in Italy, her book sold at least 1.5 million copies.3

The IHF reports that various studies have shown the coverage of Muslims in the media to have grown more negative since September 11th, with a strong tendency to associate Islam with extremism and violence. After September 11th, a wide variety of Muslim organizations and individuals attempted to make statements about the event and related questions about the integration of Islam in Italy. However, the media focused almost exclusively an imam in Torino who stated that bin Laden was not a terrorist.

Political Discourse

In Italy, a ban on the building of new mosques was proposed by a member of the right-leaning governing coalition.4 The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) has expressed concern especially about the rhetoric of the Northern League, a member of the governing coalition. Issues such as the building of mosques and the wearing of the burka have been publicly associated with concerns about terrorism. Prime Minister Berlusconi suggested publicly that western civilization is “superior” to Islamic civilization. However, in January 2002, Berlusconi met with ambassadors from over 30 Muslim countries and other Muslims and stated that Islam is a “great religion,” which must not be “criminalized” because of “the violent actions of certain groups that use criminal methods to promote a political agenda.” In 2004, Cardinal Biffi proposed a law restricting immigration to Christians only. Although the law was supported by the president of the Senate, it did not win further support.