Understanding the 2024 UK Riots
On 29th July, Bebe King, six, Elsie Dot Stancombe, seven, and Alice da Silva Aguiar, nine were fatally stabbed while attending a dance class in Southport. The horrifying incident sparked the worst unrest in UK in a decade. (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/ckg55we5n3xo) Misinformation spread that the attack was conducted by a 17-year-old Muslim immigrant, who fled to UK in 2023. As a matter of fact, a British citizen not an immigrant identified as Axel Rudakubana, living in a village in Lancashire a few miles north of Southport was charged with three counts of murder and 10 counts of attempted murder. (https://www.theguardian.com/politics/article/2024/aug/05/why-people-rioting-across-england-how-many-involved).
Nevertheless, the rumours led to attacks on a mosque and public violence against the police in the city on 30th July. This was followed by unrest and violent attacks against immigrants, especially Muslims by far-right groups such as the English Defence League, Patriotic Alternative and British Movement.[1]
Attacks of Muslims and migrants by supporters of these movements occurred across cities of the UK: London, Manchester, Hartlepool, Liverpool, Sunderland, Hull, Blackpool and Aldershot. Rallies were organized where Islamophobic and anti-immigrant hatred was expressed. In some cities violence escalated beyond control. In Belfast, petrol bombs and bricks were thrown on 5th August at the police, and a 51-year-old man was assaulted (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c4gll8w2dnro).
Businesses were also targeted (https://news.sky.com/story/stormont-recalled-to-discuss-belfast-riots-amid-paramilitary-element-13192612). Similarly, in Rotherham, asylum seekers staying in Holiday Inn were attacked by extremists who had entered the premises by force. They mob even tried to set the hotel on fire (https://www.theguardian.com/politics/article/2024/aug/05/why-people-rioting-across-england-how-many-involved) and attacked the police.
Government in Action:
The newly elected PM, Keir Starmer has taken a firm stand against anti-immigrant extremists, declaring that the rioters will ‘regret’ for engaging in ‘far-right thuggery’. Repeatedly he has asked the police force to stay on alert. He reiterated that the police deployment at the correct places has without any doubt been a deterrent in preventing further violence and unrest (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cly8rzky7lno). Taking a hardline approach against the rioters, Starmer has focused on the criminal justice system. He is attempting to uphold absolute state authority to ensure political stability and social peace in the country. He has also sent messages to the victims of the attack emphasizing that they are safe and will be protected.
The violence was spurred by social media which is why Starmer warned social media users that they should be “mindful” of their activities. The PM convened two cobra meetings [2] on August 5th and 6th. (https://www.theguardian.com/politics/article/2024/aug/06/keir-starmer-promises-communities-will-be-safe-ahead-of-riots). About 600 arrests were made by Friday, 9th August, with more than 150 people charged, including children as young as 11 years old (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/ckg55we5n3xo). Several people have been charged with social media-related offences. Other charges range from violent disorder to possession of a weapon and assaulting emergency workers (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/riots-sentencing-court-leeds-police-b2593880.html).
The rapid actions undertaken by Starmer has proved his abilities and intentions of protecting the social harmony in the country. His prior experience has helped him in getting into action quickly: In 2011, he was serving as the Director of Public Prosecutions in London when a Black British man was shot dead by Metropolitan police officers in Tottenham North London .(https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/ng-interactive/2020/jun/10/mark-duggan-shooting-can-forensic-tech-cast-doubt-on-official-report). He took an uncompromising approach to ensure that justice prevails.
Political parties and MPs across the country are asking for an emergency parliamentary session to be called to debate on the ongoing riots, but the demand was declined by PM who declared that the government is taking the necessary action.
Counter-Demonstrations, Turning the Tide
To counter far-right attacks, several anti-racist protests were organized across the country.in London, Liverpool, Birmingham, Bristol, Brighton West Sussex, Oxford, Southampton. (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/czxlgwl28gyo). Protestors carried placards and chanted slogans such as, “refugees welcome”, “Nans against Nazis”, “unite against hate” and “reject racism, try therapy”. In some places, clashes between the anti-immigrant and anti-racist rallies caused trouble and disorder. In Aldershot in Hampshire a group chanting “stop the boats” clashed with protesters holding “stand up to racism” placards which was followed by dozens of police officers rushing onto the scene. Skirmishes were also reported in Blackpool. But at the end, in most places where far-right were supposed to gather, they did not turn up, and the counter protestors outnumbered the far right led protests (https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/article/2024/aug/07/thousands-of-anti-racism-protesters-take-to-streets-to-counter-far-right-rallies).
Stand Up To Racism[3] a British anti-fascist group has been instrumental in organizing these mass counter protests (https://time.com/7009238/anti-racist-far-right-riots-britain/). Initially people were hesitant to join, but seeing the mass support and state reaction, people started turning up in larger numbers. The group United Against Racism[4] and the Northern Ireland Public Service Alliance union[5] also organised some of the counter-protests.( https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/article/2024/aug/09/overstretched-police-brace-fresh-clashes-belfast-week-riots)
Response of the Muslim Community
Far-right demonstrations and violence against immigration has also an Islamophobic component. For this reason, Muslim communities have been ‘apprehensive’ about what coming days could bring. Muslim Census[6], commissioned a survey that found 92 per cent Muslims feel “much less safe” as a result of the violent disorder. The poll, conducted between 5-6 August with a panel of 1,519 participants from various backgrounds, reported one in six people have personally experienced racist attacks since the riots began on 30 July, while two in three people witnessed at least one attack (Impact of far-right riots on Muslims revealed in poll as 92% feel less safe living in the UK (msn.com)). Mr Dorasat, the polling expert fears racism and widespread security concerns have now increased and argued the “shocking spike in Islamophobia” is not an isolated incident. Half of the people surveyed have been a victim of a racist attack just in the last year and an overwhelming 93 per cent of Muslims feel Islamophobia has increased over the past five years.. Many Muslims are preferring to stay at home to avoid any instance of lynching and hatred. The Leicester Islamic Centre announced that worshippers must take safety measures including refraining from traveling alone, avoid leaving their homes after sunset and consider traveling in groups to “avoid being a target” (Impact of far-right riots on Muslims revealed in poll as 92% feel less safe living in the UK (msn.com)).
Muslim communities ‘ response to the incidents of vandalization has been quick. For example, people in Liverpool restocked with free books the library, which was burnt during the riots (Liverpool library torched by far-right rioters raises £115k in just 48 hours – Left Foot Forward: Leading the UK’s progressive debate). Overall Muslim leaders are trying to raise awareness and extent support to the victims of racial violence. For instance, In Manchester, Khalid Anis from the Islamic Society of Britain, said members of its youth wing, which catered for people aged 16 to 26, were really scared. The society started a network to provide support (https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/carry-on-talking-say-faith-communities-as-they-support-muslims-living-in-fear-after-riots/#:~:text=The%20worst%20and%20the%20best,the%20community%20was%20%E2%80%9Cpalpable%E2%80%9D.).
Apart from public demonstrations in solidarity with immigrants, Muslims are trying to control the situation by sending a message of peace to the masses. For instance, Adam Kelwick, imam at the temporarily-closed Abdullah Quilliam mosque, Liverpool said that Muslims calmed down the protesters by offers of food and dialogue (https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/doesnt-feel-like-home-liverpools-muslims-shocked-by-uk-riots-2024-08-07/#:~:text=Some%20Muslim%20leaders%20recounted%20tensions,offers%20of%20food%20and%20dialogue.). Additionally, members of local communities patrolled mosques and remained vigilant to ensure that t places of worship are not attacked. Along the same line, The Three Hijabis[7] are calling on public protection of Muslim women and girls. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/riots-anti-racism-muslim-group-womens-safety-labour-b2591844.html).
Influential Muslim Voices and Groups
Writing in the Observer, Shabana Mahmood, the Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice in the United Kingdom praised the justice system for demonstrating it could “rise to this challenge” after the outbreaks of violence, adding that plans have been made to ensure that anyone involved in lawbreaking would be pursued “until the last offender languishes in one of our jails”. She praised prosecutors and the judiciary for ensuring “swift and true” justice, but said “rising to this challenge has been made harder” due to the system “we inherited from the Conservatives”, citing crown court backlogs and prisons “close to overflowing” (https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/article/2024/aug/10/the-justice-system-is-rising-to-challenge-of-uk-riots-despite-dire-tory-legacy). Mahmood also indicated that the violence will impact the justice system for years. But she denounced the previous government for presiding over court backlogs and crowded prisons that left the criminal justice system vulnerable to the kind of public disorder witnessed over more than a week (https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/article/2024/aug/06/muslim-leaders-urge-restraint-in-response-to-far-right-attacks).
Humza Yousaf[8] described the unrest as “utterly horrendous”. Speaking to the News Agents podcast, he declared that he was “as Scottish as they come” but he didn’t know if he saw a future here for his wife and three children. He said he had been concerned about the rise of Islamophobia for some time. “We are now seeing the culmination of not years, actually decades of anti-migrant, anti-Muslim rhetoric being normalised in our political discourse now playing out in the most violent way possible,” he added (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cp9rrepr3n8o).
Zara Mohammed, secretary-general of the Muslim Council of Britain (MCB)[9] said that the worst and the best of communities have emerged during the week of race riots across the UK. In a Religion Media Centre briefing, she described the events as “a really horrible time” and said the feeling of fear in the community was “palpable” (https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/carry-on-talking-say-faith-communities-as-they-support-muslims-living-in-fear-after-riots/#:~:text=The%20worst%20and%20the%20best,the%20community%20was%20%E2%80%9Cpalpable%E2%80%9D.).
Speaking to The Guardian, Qari Asim, chair of the Mosques and Imams National Advisory Board (Minab)[10] said: “The attacks have naturally angered and frightened many in the Muslim community. Many young people want to defend themselves and their institutions. At Minab, we have issued guidance that none should take the law into their own hands. It’s the job of the police and other authorities to protect individuals and mosques, and we should support them rather than become a hindrance. The extreme far right wants to provoke Muslims and reinforce divisions and see violent clashes on our streets. We must not hand over what the extremists desire.” (https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/article/2024/aug/06/muslim-leaders-urge-restraint-in-response-to-far-right-attacks)
Other Religious Groups Show Solidarity
Some members of other religious groups have declared their support and solidarity to Muslims. Justin Welby, the Archbishop of Canterbury labelled the far-right “unchristian” and condemned the use of Christian imagery in the riots as “an offence to our faith”. He condemned the violent unrest, which he described as “racist”, “anti-Muslim, anti-refugee. The archbishop also rejected the description of the riots as “protests” and said they were “criminal” and “must be controlled” (https://www.theguardian.com/politics/article/2024/aug/11/far-right-unchristian-archbishop-of-canterbury-justin-welby-condemns-riots). Following violent protests in Sunderland on 2nd August, a statement was issued on behalf of the United Reformed Churches in Sunderland and Roker by Revd Jane Rowell, Minister of the United Reformed Churches in Sunderland extending their support to the people of Masjid e Anwaar e Madinah, Muslims and other communities who faced violence (https://urc.org.uk/sunderland-riots-urc-stands-together-with-muslim-friends/). Besides, Rabbi Alexandra Wright, the president of Liberal Judaism in Britain, said the scenes of far-right violence galvanized many members of her community to affirm solidarity with their Muslim neighbours. As a member of a Jewish-Christian-Muslim clergy group in London, she helped prepare a letter of support for Southport’s Muslim community (https://www.timesofisrael.com/after-uk-riots-against-muslims-and-refugees-local-jews-grapple-with-familiar-extremism/).
Growing Islamophobia in the UK
The ease with which racist claims spread highlights the normalisation of Islamophobia in British society. Political parties have also a responsibility. According to a 2019 report by the anti-racist group Hope not Hate, “more than a third of people in the UK believe that Islam is a threat to the British way of life.” Nearly a third of the public (32 percent) subscribes to anti-Muslim conspiracy theories, including claims of “No-Go zones,” which nearly half of Conservative voters (47 percent) believe are true. And the report also argued that anti-Muslim prejudice was a key driver in the growth of the far right (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/17/third-of-britons-believe-islam-threatens-british-way-of-life-says-report).
Even after the identity of the attacker in Southport was revealed, mosques continued to vandalized and Muslims were attacked by mobs in several places. Thus, according to Chris Allen, Associate Professor, School of Criminology, University of Leicester and an expert of Islamophobia in Britain, stated that labelling the riots as anti-immigrants or far-right thuggery is an attempt to shy away from their Islamophobic nature (https://theconversation.com/refusing-to-call-out-islamophobia-has-emboldened-the-far-right-and-the-current-violence-is-the-result-236259).
Islamophobia has been steadily rising over at least the last two decades and has become politically mainstream. A dossier submitted to the Equality and Human Rights Commission in 2020 by the Muslim Council of Britain exposing a culture of rampant Islamophobia within the Conservative Party and calling for public action, was ignored by political authorities. (https://www.euro-islam.info/2019/10/02/president-of-the-uks-national-union-of-students-pulls-out-of-governing-conservative-party-conference-after-islamophobic-comments/, https://www.dazeddigital.com/life-culture/article/64315/1/how-british-muslims-are-responding-to-uk-race-riots-islamophobia-racism).
British political parties have long faced criticism over their failure to tackle Islamophobia. (https://www.euro-islam.info/2022/11/19/no-working-definition-of-islamophobia-for-the-uk-government-implications-and-reactions/).
Conservative Party’s Affair with Islamophobia
The Conservative Party in its tenure of 14 years failed to curb practices causing division and hate in society (https://www.euro-islam.info/2022/11/19/no-working-definition-of-islamophobia-for-the-uk-government-implications-and-reactions/) (https://www.euro-islam.info/2021/04/30/islamophobia-within-the-british-conservative-party-an-inquiry/ ).(https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/article/2024/aug/06/riots-thuggery-14-years-tory-race-baiting )
Muslim ministers like MP Nusrat Ghani claimed that her religious identity was making other colleagues uncomfortable which is why she was ousted from the position of Transport Minister in early 2020 (https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/2/28/why-is-the-uks-conservative-party-facing-a-firestorm-over-islamophobia
Additionally, the Conservative Party failed to take any serious actions against far-right extremist groups. For example, Sara Khan, in charge of the report “Operating with Impunity Hateful extremism: The need for a legal framework” in the Commission for Countering Extremism (https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/602fe051d3bf7f721724e014/CCE_Operating_with_Impunity_Summary.pdf) that the recommendations of the report where not taken into account and the law curtailing neo-Nazi movements was not changed. (https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/article/2024/aug/06/riots-thuggery-14-years-tory-race-baiting).
The governments have ignored warnings from the police that far-right groups are the fastest growing terrorism threat in the country. In 2019, police briefings indicated that a quarter of all terrorism arrests in 2018 were linked to far-right violence and the far-right caseload of counter-terrorism police jumped from 6% to 10% in 2017-18. They also suggested that referrals to Prevent, the anti-radicalization programme, had almost doubled between 2016 and 2018 for the far right, from 10% to 18%, and were expected to rise further and that one third of all terror plots to kill in Britain since 2017 – seven out of 22 – were by those driven by extreme-right causes (https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/sep/19/fastest-growing-uk-terrorist-threat-is-from-far-right-say-police). As of June 2023, 27% of people in custody for terrorism-related offences were categorized as extreme-right (https://www.isdglobal.org/digital_dispatches/the-foundations-of-violence-the-growth-of-far-right-hate-in-the-uk/).
Nonetheless, the Conservative Party leaders continue to use culture war themes to attract voters. Robert Jenrick, who has been Member of Parliament (MP) for Newark since the 2014 by-election for the Conservative Party claimed in the parliament, on February 22nd 2024 without evidence: “We have allowed our streets to be dominated by Islamic extremists.” (https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2024-02-22/debates/6515BA7F-4BB9-4C2D-8A2A-B38E8AECCB33/BusinessOfTheHouse#contribution-8E334ADE-A498-4688-8D05-A62541975920) Prominent Conservatives, sometimes with the party leadership’s apparent endorsement, repeatedly smeared the mayor of London, Sadiq Khan, falsely associating him with radical Islamism simply because he was a Muslim. (https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/article/2024/aug/06/riots-thuggery-14-years-tory-race-baiting) (https://www.adambienkov.co.uk/p/lee-anderson-and-the-conservative)
Labour Party’s Islamophobia
The Labour party’s responsibility in the rise of islamophobia should not be underestimated. In 2006, the Labour cabinet minister Jack Straw declared he was uncomfortable speaking to Muslim women wearing a veil, calling it “a visible statement of separation and of difference” (https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/article/2024/aug/10/tories-islamophobic-labour-tony-blair-muslim-members).
It is worth noting that in the 2024, general elections (https://www.euro-islam.info/2024/08/12/muslims-and-the-uk-general-election-2024/) despite the Labour Party landslide victory, Muslims support to the party has significantly declined. In November 2020, the Labour Muslim Network (LMN) published a report titled “Islamophobia and the Muslim Experience”, the largest consultation of Muslim members of the party to date. It found that 1 in 3 members had directly witnessed Islamophobia within the party, 1 in 4 Muslim members had directly experienced Islamophobia within the party, and almost half of Muslim members did not believe the Labour Party takes the issue of Islamophobia seriously (https://www.euro-islam.info/2022/03/30/is-islamophobia-on-the-rise-within-the-uk-labour-party/#).
The Labour Party positions on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict has caused further decline of Muslims support . Starmer himself talked of Israel’s “right” to deny Palestinians access to food, fuel and medicine. (https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2023/oct/20/labour-deeply-divided-over-starmers-line-on-israel-hamas-war) (https://www.lbc.co.uk/news/sir-keir-starmer-hamas-terrorism-israel-defend-itself/)
Use of social media:
The riots have been in part triggered by the misinformation and fake news spread across social media (https://www.theguardian.com/media/article/2024/aug/03/a-polarisation-engine-how-social-media-has-created-a-perfect-storm-for-uks-far-right-riots).
PM Starmer has taken strict actions against those using social media to spread hate. The PM warned social media users should be “mindful” as several people have now been arrested or charged with social media-related offences (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/riots-uk-charge-sentences-southport-murders-facebook-b2597202.html?page=5). On Friday, Jordan Parlour from Leeds, England, was sentenced to 20 months in jail after being convicted of publishing written material intended to stir racial hatred. The 28-year-old had posted the material on Facebook (https://edition.cnn.com/2024/08/09/tech/uk-protests-social-media/index.html). Police have openly blamed that misinformation for the violence that has wracked the country in recent days. Along the same line, the owner of X, Elon Musk has not only allowed his platform to be used by the far right to escalate conflict but he participated himself, amplifying posts by some of the most malign sources of disinformation.
Overall, the riots reveal the need of protecting citizens against hatred disseminated through social media. UK Prime Minister Keir Starmer said in a video distributed to media on August 9 that in the aftermath of the riots, his government will look into social media responsibility in the propagation of racism and hatred. (https://www.theguardian.com/politics/article/2024/aug/09/online-safety-act-to-be-reviewed-after-sadiq-khan-criticism-says-minister).
Overall, the riots reveal the vulnerability of British society to far right mobilization against Muslims and immigrants and creates a political challenge to main stream political leaders who at different levels have contributed to the normalization of Islamophobia.
References:
[1] English Defence League: Created in 2009, the English Defence League is a far-right street movement notorious for violent protests and an anti-Islam, anti-immigration stance. The group emerged in Luton, England, where community tensions had risen after a handful of Islamic extremists chanted abuse at British soldiers returning home from Iraq. Stephen Yaxley-Lennon, one of the founders of the movement who goes by the name Tommy Robinson, rose to international prominence in the 2010 among islamophobic networks in Europe and the United States. After the Southport incident, he used social media, including a previously banned twtter profile that was reinstated under Elon Musk, to promote falsehoods about the identity of the Southport attacker (https://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/03/world/europe/uk-stabbing-riots-far-right-protesters-explained.html). (LINK to their website)
Patriotic Alternative (PA): Patriotic Alternative (PA) is a British far-right, fascist, neo-Nazi and white nationalist hate group founded in July 2019 by the neo-Nazi and antisemitic conspiracy theorist Mark Collett, the former director of publicity of the British National Party. Patriotic Alternative aims to combat the “replacement and displacement” of white British people by migrants who “have no right to these lands”. According to Hope not Hate, members of Patriotic Alternative have supported political violence, the white genocide conspiracy theory, and Holocaust denial. David Miles, a prominent member of Patriotic Alternative, shared photographs of himself in SouthporADD SOURCE . One PA Twitter user, Holly Myers, denied PA’s involvement. But PA’s leader, Mark Collett, justified the violence, writing on his Telegram channel that “White men took to the street and attacked the police because they have been ignored maligned and persecuted… The blame for all this lies with the anti-white establishment” (https://freedomnews.org.uk/2024/07/31/fascist-group-patriotic-alternative-involved-in-southport-riot/).
The British Movement (BM) : The British Movement, later called the British National Socialist Movement (BNSM), WAS founded as a political party by Colin Jordan in 1968 but operates as a pressure and activist group. It has a long and chequered history for its association with violence and extremism.
Britain First: Britain Forst was formed in 2011 by by Jim Dowson, and former member of the British National Party, Paul Golding and Ashlea Simon. It campaigns primarily against multiculturalism and what it sees as the Islamisation of the United Kingdom.. It attracted attention by taking direct action such as “Christian patrols” and “invasions” of British mosques.[11][15] It also known for its online activism. But the far right is not restricted to organisations with clear hierarchical structures. Rather, it is an international and online-networked movement with a shared ideology spread by a core of theorists, leaders and influencers who use their power to put out statements designed to trigger others to commit violence. Citizen journalists” who used the pseudo name “migrant hunters” such as Amanda Smith (who uses the social media avatar Yorkshire Rose) and Alan Leggett (Active Patriot), have increasingly targeted hotels, live streaming their “visits” in footage that shows activists intimidating residents. Smith wrote how “women and girls are frightened to walk around the area of the [Rotherham] hotel at night”, pushing the message that migrant men are a threat to white women. (https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/far-right-riots-great-replacement-boogaloo/).
[2] Cabinet Office Briefing Rooms (COBR) are special meeting rooms in the Cabinet Office in London. These are used for committees which co-ordinate government’s actions in response to national or regional crises, or overseas events with implications for the UK
[3] Stand Up to Racism (SUTR) is an organization which was formed in 2013. It campaigns against racism, fascism, Islamophobia and antisemitism along with its sister organization, Unite Against Fascism. Samira Ali is the National SUTR organiser. Other important leaders include Weyman Bennett and Sabby Dhalu. (https://standuptoracism.org.uk/stop-the-far-right-national-day-of-protest-saturday-10th-august/)
[4] United Against Racism is a membership- based grass-root all-Ireland democratic organisation which was formed in 2016. It rejects all forms of racism and discrimination including Islamophobia, antisemitism and anti- Traveller racism and is against all scapegoating of migrants and minorities. (https://www.united-against-racism.net)
[5] NIPSA, the Northern Ireland Public Service Alliance is the largest trade union in Northern Ireland with nearly 43,000 members. It was originally founded in 1922 as Belfast and District Public Officers’ Association. Tanya Killen is the current president while Paul Dale is the vice president and Jane Scott is currently serving as the treasurer. It is organised into two groups, the Civil Service Group, and the Public Officers Group. (https://nipsa.org.uk/join-us/who-we-are)
[6] https://muslimcensus.co.uk/muslims-feel-less-safe-since-far-right-riots/#:~:text=Muslim%20Census%20survey%20of%201%2C519,recent%20riots%20across%20the%20country.
[7] The Three Hijabis is an anti-racist group which was vocal against racist abuse of three Black England players, Rashford, Sancho and Saka, at the Euro 2020 final between England and Italy at Wembley by filing a petition calling for racists to be banned from football matches for life. ((Campaigns – The 3 Hijabis (threehijabis.com))
[8] Humza Yousaf is the former first minister of Scotland, the first ethnic minority leader of a devolved government and the first Muslim to lead a major UK party when he became SNP leader.
[9] Muslim Council of Britain was established in 1997, is an umbrella organisation with over 500 members – including mosques, schools, local and county councils, professional networks and advocacy groups.
[10] The Mosques and Imams National Advisory Board (MINAB) originated in the United Kingdom on 27 June 2006 with the aim of promoting best practice in British mosques. It is an independent self-regulatory body aspiring to build capacity in mosques, help deliver standards, and ensure mosque personnel have a better understanding of British Muslims’ needs so that it can address any concerns more effectively. It works with and represents all Muslim traditions and schools of thought (https://minab.org.uk/).
